Chapter One
Preface
I.1 Background
Basically human is social creature. Everybody can stand alone; surely they need the other people to help each other. So, it can summarized that human is not individual creature. Human talk, writes, and gesture all human lives to communicate with others. All of human are language users and, though unaware of it, language-makers, virtually from birth to death. More than any other tools, language enables us to behave properly as human beings as language characterizes and differentiates human beings from other creatures in this world.
Language is communication devices, by language we can communicate to the other. Using language is not only for communication but also for all importance. Using language is not limited. Some people use language for entertain such as poetry, drama, novel, etc.
We use language in our daily lives for almost every purpose. We learn language from our mother since we are babies, teenage to adult it is the language we comprehend that is termed mother tongue, our first language. When a child begins to be introduced to the schooling world, he/she will find different language used by his/her teacher in classroom interactions. In their school the students will learn second language used in their study, such as; writing a letter, having conversation with other, that is different from their mother tongue.
Poetry, drama, and novel above include part of literature. So, in this opportunity writer would like to analysis the intrinsic novel of “Tom Sawyer” by Mark Twain. As we know novel is a part of literature that has relevant which using language.
I.2 Research Question
In doing the research, the writer states the problem she is going to investigate. So, the writer put one question to explain the content of discussion later.
1) How the intrinsic of novel Tom Sawyer?
I.3 the Aim of Research
1) To know the intrinsic of novel Tom Sawyer
I.4 Method of Research
The writer uses several strategies to collecting data.
1) Read novel Tom Sawyer
2) Find out the intrinsic of Tom Sawyer
I.5 Paper Systematic
Preface
Content List
Chapter One Introduction
I.1 Background
I.2 Research Question
I.3 the Aim of Research
I.4 Method of Research
I.5 Paper Systematic
Chapter Two Theoretical Foundation
Chapter Three Discussion
Chapter Four Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter Two
Theoretical Foundation
The Meaning of Novel
Novel is narrative text informing of prose with a long shape that including some figures and fiction event. According to Sumardjo, novel is a story with the prose form in long shape, this long shape means the story including the complex plot, many character and various setting (1998:29).
The Intrinsic Elements
The intrinsic elements in a novel are element that directly contribute build the story (B Nurgiyantoro 2003:23). The intrinsic elements are plot, setting characterization, message, point of view, style of writing and theme.
- Plot
According to Forster, plot is events in story that has pressure to causal relationship (1970:93). According to Stanton (1965:14) is story that contents sequence event but every event connected by causal relationship, one event cause or caused to the other events.
- Setting
Setting is place; time and social condition that become place for figures do and affected an event (B. Nurgiyantoro, 2000:75) setting will influence the action and way of thought of figures.
- Characterization
Figures that showed in a narrative work, or drama that by reader meaning have moral quality and certain tendency that expressed in utterance and action (Abrams 1981:80) called characterization.
- Point of View
Point of view is way and or opinion that used author as medium to present figures, action, setting and some events that make a story in fiction work to reader (Abrams 1981:142)
- Style of Writing
Is way of pronunciation of language in prose or how an author expressing a thing which will suggest (Abrams 190-1). According to Leech and Short, Style is the way of using language in certain context by certain author for certain purpose (1981:59).
- Theme
According to Stanton (1965:88) and Kenny (1966:20) theme is meaning that contained by a story.
- Message
Moral message can be conveyed directly by character of figures, and conveyed indirectly that message just implicit. Moral is one of theme form in a simple shape, but not all theme is moral (Kenny 1996:89)
Chapter Three
Discussion
Plot:
Exposition;
At midnight, Tom & Huck sneak into graveyard. Once there, they hear people coming and hide. Dr. Robinson arrives with Injun Joe, an evil criminal & Muff Potter. They are stealing bodies from the grave the men argue. Muff Potter is knocking out and Injun Joe murders Dr. Robinson. Tom and Huck run away, fearing for their live. When Muff Potter awakes, Injun Joe tells him that he not Injun Joe murdered the doctor.
Raising Action;
Tom & Huck show Injun Joe murder Dr. Robinson. Scared, swear never tell anyone what they saw. However, Tom is bothered by the event and begins to have night mares.
Climax;
Soon enough, that ends; just in time for Muff Potter’s trial to begin Tom is still wracked with guilt about letting Muff take the blame for Injun Joe’s crime. He goes again oath & confesses what he knows to the defense attorney. He testifies in court, and Muff is freed, but not before Injun Joe escapes.
Failing Action;
Becky return to town and all the children (except Huck) go on a picnic to Mc Douglas cave while exploring, Tom & Becky get lose and left.
Conclusion;
Judge Thatcher has the door to cave sealed. When Tom find out, he tells the Judge that Injun Joe is inside but they arrive too late, and Injun Joe has starved to death.
Setting:
Place :
St. Petersburg, graveyard, haunted house, church, court, school, Mc Douglas cave, Becky’s house.
Time :
1800, summer, midnight.
Social Condition:
Moral and social maturation (As Tom begins to take initiative to help others instead of himself, he shows his increasing maturity.
Social Hypocrisy (The novel shows that adult existence is more similar to childhood existence that it might seem.
Point of View: writer as the second man.
Character:
Tom Sawyer:
Dynamic, mischievous, adventurer, active. He has an active imagination, and gets into trouble a lot. He is born to be a leader, and very head strong. Through out the book he goes to many adventures that change him.
Aunt Polly:
Monotony. Aunt Polly is religious but kindhearted. Although she fights with Tom a lot, she loves him very much and cares for his well being.
Joe Harper:
Monotony.
Becky Thatcher:
Static, main, spirited, beautiful girl
Widow Douglas:
Rich person
Huckleberry Finn:
The son of the town drank and wild boy. He doesn’t go to school, church, and any other social function.
Injun Joe:
Antagonist, hateful, cruel. The villain of the book, he is half-Indian & hateful (A criminal who steals & murders without a thought.
Judge Thatcher: Important judge.
Dr. Robinson:
Antagonist forced. A young doctor who stolen bodies from graves, until he is murdered one night by Injun Joe.
Muff Potter:
Antagonist, static, monotony, peripheral.
Theme
The Common theme of novel Tom Sawyer is friendship.
Message:
The moral messages which be found in this novel are:
1) Value of friendship
2) Criminal action is not good example for our life.
Chapter Four
Conclusion
Novel of Tom Sawyer tell about the friendship of Tom Sawyer. Tom Sawyer is a naughty boy. He and Huckleberry Finn went to graveyard. They saw Dr Robinson is murdered by Injun Joe. Injun Joe knew about Tom and Huck, and then catches them. Tom and Huck promised that they will never tell the case to anyone.
Tom and Huck ran away, and then Tom tells the murder. Becky return to town and all the children (except Huck) go on a picnic to Mc Douglas cave while exploring, Tom & Becky get lose and left. Judge Thatcher has the door to cave sealed. When Tom find out, he tells the Judge that Injun Joe is inside but they arrive too late, and Injun Joe has starved to death.
Bibliography
Setianingsih, Nani. 2003. A Paper “The Intrinsic Analysis to the Novel A Murder Is Announced by Agatha Christie. Foreign School Language Sebelas April Sumedang.
Twain, Mark. 1997. Tom Sawyer. Bridlington: Peter Haddock Ltd.
www.wikipedia.com
Selasa, 24 Februari 2009
Fundamental Approach to Poetry
Chapter One
Introduction
I.1 Introduction
People communicate not just to convey information for business like practical reasons; they also convey feelings and attitudes. Telling a joke, passing the time in conversation and greeting old friends are some examples, and poetry is another. Some propositions including many involving values, emotions, feelings, attitudes and judgments can’t be conveyed through communicating practical information or with scientific precision. Like science, literature (and especially poetry) uses a specialized language for the purposes of precision in matters different from science.
In ordinary life, people must deal with forms of communication that use some of the methods of poetry, including editorials, sermons, political speeches, advertisements and magazine articles. Yet when approaching poems, many people confuse practical or "scientific" kinds of communication with poetic communication, sometimes as a way of justifying their interest in poetry, and so fall into certain mistakes.
One mistake is "message-hunting" looking only for a profitable statement or idea in a poem. A short prose statement can work better than a poem for communicating advice. Something else is at work in poetry.
Another mistake is thinking that poetry deals only with emotion or sensation, or even thinking that poetry can express an emotion such as grief the way tears would express it, or bring up the emotion in the reader. But poetry can never do that as well as real experience, the authors say, and a poem, such as Keats' Ode to a Nightingale, used as an example here, may really convey the poet's interpretation of an experience.
A third common mistake is an attempt to mechanically combine the first two, defining poetry as the "beautiful statement of some high truth", or "truth" with "decorations". This mistake can lead to thinking of poems as collections of pretty language pleasing for its associations with pleasant things. But even Shakespeare and Milton wrote fine passages bringing up unpleasant and disagreeable associations. The things represented don't themselves shape the poetic effect, which depends on the "kind of use the poet makes of them."
These mistakes look at poems in a mechanical way rather than in an organic way in which the elements (such as meter, rhyme, figurative language, along with attitude and emotion) need to be understood to be acting in a fundamental, intimate, organic way with each other.
The introduction also states (but doesn't develop the thought) that poems are inherently dramatic, with an implied speaker who reacts to a situation, scene or idea.
I.2 Problems
1. What are the fundamental approaches to poetry?
2. How the case example of fundamental approach to poetry?
I.3 Solve Problem Method
In this paper writer would like to use the descriptive method to solve the problem by describe the solving problem.
I.4 Systematic
Preface
Content of List
Chapter One Introduction
I.1 Introduction
I.2 Problems
I.3 Solve Problem Method
I.4 Systematic
Chapter Two Content
II.1 Fundamental Approaches to Poetry Analysis
II.2 Case Example of Fundamental Approach to Poetry Analysis
Chapter Three Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter Two
Content
II.1 Fundamental Approaches
1. Objective
The objective approach to a poem begins with a full description of the poem’s physical or technical properties. The reader should try to elucidate the poet methods and meaning in an entirely objective way.
There should be description of the basic versification of the poem; what kind of rhyme scheme does it have? How many feet are there in each line? What kind of language does the poet use? Are there examples of alliteration, hyperbole, paradox or any other rhetorical figure and if so why the poet chosen the include them? How is the meaning of the poem conveying trough the use of this technical device?
2. Subjective
The subjective approach to a poem begins with personal interest in the poem. When one has read a poem one has encounter the statement of a certain experience. Then one wants to respond to that experience trough a consideration of one own experience. In other word a subjective respond to a poem is a molded by individual experience.
3. General
Using the general or universal approach, we make various statements about a poem in a generalized way. We direct our discussion to what general truths or feelings the poems reflect. It recurs continuously not only in poetry but in life.
4. Particular
The particular approach to a poem is the opposite of the general approach. The particular occur only once; it is unique, and thus, by definition, is never duplicated.
5. Imagery and symbolism
Most poetry can be read on several levels. The surface is not necessarily the essence of the poem, although in some cases (notably, the works of William McGonagall) there is little beyond the immediate. Allegory, connotation and metaphor are some of the subtler ways in which a poet communicates with the reader.
Before getting seduced into explorations of subtle nuance, however, the reader should establish the theme of the poem. What is the 'story' that is being told? Not the literal story but the heart of the poem. For example: Another tells of a buried child; The Destruction of Sennacherib tells of the last days of the Assyrian king; the silken tent compares a woman to a tent. Part of this involves recognizing the voice of the poem (who is speaking), and the rest of Kipling's "six honest serving men": the events in the poem; when these occur; where is the 'speaker' and where do the events occur; why does the speaker speak? William Harmon has suggested that starting an analysis with: "This poem dramatizes the conflict between …" is a key technique.
George Herbert in his poem Jordan asks if poetry must be about the imaginary. The poem opens:
Who sayes that fictions onely and false hair
Become a verse? Is there in truth no beautie?
Is all good structure in a winding stair?
May no lines passe, except they do their dutie
Not to a true, but painted chair?
He was railing against the prevalent enthusiasm for pastoral poetry above all other forms (as becomes apparent in subsequent verses). Curiously, this verse uses metaphors to challenge the use of indirect approaches to their subject. False hair and a painted chair are decorations of the mundane. The winding stair is obstructive concealment of meaning. Herbert is criticizing the overuse of allegory, symbolism or elaborate language.
For most poets—even the plain-speaking Herbert—metaphor is the fundamental means of communicating complexity succinctly. Some metaphors become so widely used that they are widely recognized symbols and these can be identified by using a specialist dictionary.
Allegorical verse uses an extended metaphor to provide the framework for the whole work. It was particularly prevalent in seventeenth century English but a more recent example is Charles Williams' The Masque of the Manuscript, in which the process of publishing is a metaphor for the search for truth. Allegories are usually readily apparent because of the heavy use of metaphor within them.
The symbolism used in a poem may not always be as overt as metaphor. Often the poet communicates emotionally by selecting words with particular connotations. For example, the word "sheen" in The Destruction of Sennacherib has stronger connotations of polishing, of human industry, than does the similar "shine". The Assyrians did not simply choose shiny metal; they worked to make it so. The word hints at a military machine.
Other tropes that may be used to increase the level of allusion include irony, litotes, simile, and metonymy (particularly synecdoche).
6. Sound, tone, diction, and connotation
Analyzing diction and connotation — the meanings of words as well as the feelings and associations they carry — is a good place to start for any poem. The use of specific words in the poem serves to create a tone an attitude taken towards the subject. For example, consider the words "slither" and "sneak." When used in a poem, the words conjure up images of a snake. The sibilant s sound reinforces the image. The connotations of the words suggest something surreptitious and undercover. From the tone, one can infer that the author is suspicious or fearful of the subject.
A detached tone or an opposite tone than the reader would expect, are sometimes purposely employed to elicit more of a response. In the opening lines of "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", T. S. Eliot quickly sets a certain tone, and then creates effect by juxtaposing it with a very different tone:
Let us go then, you and I,
When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherized upon a table
7. Evaluating
a final approach to analyze poetry. We have looked at poem in as many ways as possible; we should always make some kind of summarizing statement about the quality of the poem.
II.2 Case Example
"The Silken Tent" by Robert Frost
In these two examples, analytic terms are not needed to appreciate the poem; they are only needed to explain or describe the poem's effect. Sometimes, though, the reader needs a certain skill in analyzing poetry in order to appreciate the poem. If a listener doesn't know what fish tanks and military tanks are, he or she will not "get the joke" about the two fish. Similarly, sometimes a poem cannot work, cannot produce its intended effect, and cannot do what it was designed to do, unless the reader brings a certain level of analytic skill to the experience of reading it. One such poem is Robert Frost's "The Silken Tent".
"The Silken Tent" by Robert Frost
She is as in a field a silken tent
At midday when a sunny summer breeze
Has dried the dew and all its ropes relent,
So that in guys it gently sways at ease,
And its supporting central cedar pole,
That is its pinnacle to heavenward
And signifies the sureness of the soul,
Seems to owe naught to any single cord,
But strictly held by none, is loosely bound
By countless silken ties of love and thought
To everything on earth the compass round,
And only by one's going slightly taut
In the capriciousness of summer air
Is of the slightest bondage made aware.
Often, a good way to begin analyzing a poem is to reword it, putting it in one's own words, or into ordinary speech, in order to get a good grasp of the poem's content. (This is called doing a prose paraphrase.) Like Shakespeare's "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day", this poem uses a sustained image to describe another person. Frost draws out an extended comparison between a woman and a silken tent in order to make some essential aspect of the woman's character real and available to the reader. The comparison is not to just any tent, but to a tent imagined in a very specific way. Ropes or cords draw up, become taut, when wet. In this case, the tent is imagined at midday. Any morning dew which would have soaked the tent's guy-lines has evaporated, and the ropes are now somewhat slack. The tent sways slightly in response to the wind. This imagery conveys — at a subconscious but very real and effective level — a sense that the woman being described is not tense or nervous, but is instead genial, relaxed, comfortable to be around. This does not mean, though, that she is wishy washy, someone who is blown about by every gust of fad and fashion. The tent's pole — its upright nature, its strength — conveys a sense of backbone, character, and firmness in the woman being described. In this woman's case, firmness of character does not lead to her becoming dogmatic or insistent. Rather, her character derives in part at least from her deep investment in friends, family, and community, from "countless silken ties of love and thought". Some people would experience numerous relationships and the obligations they entail as something entangling, binding, or limiting. This woman does not seem to. She seems to be very much at ease in this situation, so much so that she and those around her are only likely to be aware of their bounds and limits in unusual circumstances.
When one reads this poem aloud, rhythm and meter are much less evident, much less emphatically presented than in "The Destruction of Sennacherib". In fact, most people who hear the poem read aloud for the first time will say that it does not rhyme and it does not have any particular rhythm. Closer examination reveals that the poem does rhyme though. In fact, it rhymes in a specific pattern: ABAB CDCD EFEF GG (that is, the first line rhymes with the third line (the A's), the second line rhymes with the fourth line (the B's), and so forth). But, the rhymes are much less forceful, much less emphatic and noticeable, than in Byron's poem. This is in part because Byron arranged the words such that each line ending (and therefore each rhyme) corresponds a natural pause in speech. That is, the lines end at the same places where one would pause if the lines were set as prose and one were reading the words aloud. Such lines are said to be end stopped. End stopping makes rhyme more noticeable. Frost, though, arranged at least some of the lines in "The Silken Tent" such that the line endings do not coincide with natural pauses (such as the end of line 2: someone reading the words "a sunny, summer breeze / has dried the dew" would not necessarily pause after "breeze"). This technique is called enjambment. Enjambment de-emphasizes rhyming lines.
And, there is a rhythm, albeit a rather subtle or muted one. Each line has ten syllables, and (with slight and pleasant variations) they follow a pattern of weak syllables followed by strong syllables:
has DRIED the DEW and ALL its ROPES reLENT
This pattern (weak STRONG) is called an iamb. There are five iambs to the line here: these are pentameter lines (penta- is from the Greek for "five"). The poem does have a meter: it is called iambic pentameter. Frost employs the meter with a very light touch, though, and feels free to "play around with it", briefly departing from the regular pattern as appropriate.
The whole poem is a single sentence: a single, rather long, but nonetheless conversational sounding sentence that covers fourteen lines.
So, this poem, which at first seems rather formless, in fact has a very specific structure: fourteen lines of iambic pentameter rhyming ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. There is a term for this structure: it is called the Shakespearean sonnet, and it is regarded as one of the stricter, more difficult forms. Frost is not writing a shapeless poem; he is writing within very strict rules, and in fact has raised the bar by making himself do it all in one sentence. The poem is single, long, graceful sentence that unfolds — in very relaxed, natural sounding way — within the strict boundaries of the Shakespearean sonnet form.
And — going back to the prose paraphrase — it describes a woman whose life unfolds in a very relaxed, natural way, within numerous strict boundaries. In the woman's character, as in the poem's form, one is not really aware that the boundaries are even there. The woman, like the poem, exists comfortably, naturally, easily within numerous limits and boundaries.
And this is the poem's great accomplishment: the form enacts the content; the language of the poem does what the language itself says. Though this analysis proceeded by temporarily separating form and content, the result of the analysis is the realization that in "The Silken Tent", form and content are truly inseparable: they are exact complements to each other. The effect of this poem, the work it is designed to do, is to create a sharp sense of pleasure and appreciation when one recognizes how skillfully and appropriately the poet has used the words.
In this case, a certain amount of critical terminology and analytic skill is necessary in order to appreciate the poem. If the reader does not know what a sonnet is, much less more subtle aspects of form such as enjambment, he or she will have no way to see what the poem does. He or she will have no way to "get the joke". In this case, poetry enjoyment is enabled by poetry analysis.
Chapter Three
Conclution
There are some fundamental approaches to poetry such: Objective, Subjective, General, Particural, Imagery and Symbolism, tone, ditcion conotation, and the last approach is Evaluating. These approaches have different meaning based on the reader. Each of the approach describe is helpful in each own way and ultimately a complite axplication of a poem requires that we approach it in various ways.
Bibliography
Russel Reaske, Christopher. 1966. How to Analyze Poetry. Monarch Press: New York.
www.wikipediaenclycopedia.om
www.shelfmagazine.com
Introduction
I.1 Introduction
People communicate not just to convey information for business like practical reasons; they also convey feelings and attitudes. Telling a joke, passing the time in conversation and greeting old friends are some examples, and poetry is another. Some propositions including many involving values, emotions, feelings, attitudes and judgments can’t be conveyed through communicating practical information or with scientific precision. Like science, literature (and especially poetry) uses a specialized language for the purposes of precision in matters different from science.
In ordinary life, people must deal with forms of communication that use some of the methods of poetry, including editorials, sermons, political speeches, advertisements and magazine articles. Yet when approaching poems, many people confuse practical or "scientific" kinds of communication with poetic communication, sometimes as a way of justifying their interest in poetry, and so fall into certain mistakes.
One mistake is "message-hunting" looking only for a profitable statement or idea in a poem. A short prose statement can work better than a poem for communicating advice. Something else is at work in poetry.
Another mistake is thinking that poetry deals only with emotion or sensation, or even thinking that poetry can express an emotion such as grief the way tears would express it, or bring up the emotion in the reader. But poetry can never do that as well as real experience, the authors say, and a poem, such as Keats' Ode to a Nightingale, used as an example here, may really convey the poet's interpretation of an experience.
A third common mistake is an attempt to mechanically combine the first two, defining poetry as the "beautiful statement of some high truth", or "truth" with "decorations". This mistake can lead to thinking of poems as collections of pretty language pleasing for its associations with pleasant things. But even Shakespeare and Milton wrote fine passages bringing up unpleasant and disagreeable associations. The things represented don't themselves shape the poetic effect, which depends on the "kind of use the poet makes of them."
These mistakes look at poems in a mechanical way rather than in an organic way in which the elements (such as meter, rhyme, figurative language, along with attitude and emotion) need to be understood to be acting in a fundamental, intimate, organic way with each other.
The introduction also states (but doesn't develop the thought) that poems are inherently dramatic, with an implied speaker who reacts to a situation, scene or idea.
I.2 Problems
1. What are the fundamental approaches to poetry?
2. How the case example of fundamental approach to poetry?
I.3 Solve Problem Method
In this paper writer would like to use the descriptive method to solve the problem by describe the solving problem.
I.4 Systematic
Preface
Content of List
Chapter One Introduction
I.1 Introduction
I.2 Problems
I.3 Solve Problem Method
I.4 Systematic
Chapter Two Content
II.1 Fundamental Approaches to Poetry Analysis
II.2 Case Example of Fundamental Approach to Poetry Analysis
Chapter Three Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter Two
Content
II.1 Fundamental Approaches
1. Objective
The objective approach to a poem begins with a full description of the poem’s physical or technical properties. The reader should try to elucidate the poet methods and meaning in an entirely objective way.
There should be description of the basic versification of the poem; what kind of rhyme scheme does it have? How many feet are there in each line? What kind of language does the poet use? Are there examples of alliteration, hyperbole, paradox or any other rhetorical figure and if so why the poet chosen the include them? How is the meaning of the poem conveying trough the use of this technical device?
2. Subjective
The subjective approach to a poem begins with personal interest in the poem. When one has read a poem one has encounter the statement of a certain experience. Then one wants to respond to that experience trough a consideration of one own experience. In other word a subjective respond to a poem is a molded by individual experience.
3. General
Using the general or universal approach, we make various statements about a poem in a generalized way. We direct our discussion to what general truths or feelings the poems reflect. It recurs continuously not only in poetry but in life.
4. Particular
The particular approach to a poem is the opposite of the general approach. The particular occur only once; it is unique, and thus, by definition, is never duplicated.
5. Imagery and symbolism
Most poetry can be read on several levels. The surface is not necessarily the essence of the poem, although in some cases (notably, the works of William McGonagall) there is little beyond the immediate. Allegory, connotation and metaphor are some of the subtler ways in which a poet communicates with the reader.
Before getting seduced into explorations of subtle nuance, however, the reader should establish the theme of the poem. What is the 'story' that is being told? Not the literal story but the heart of the poem. For example: Another tells of a buried child; The Destruction of Sennacherib tells of the last days of the Assyrian king; the silken tent compares a woman to a tent. Part of this involves recognizing the voice of the poem (who is speaking), and the rest of Kipling's "six honest serving men": the events in the poem; when these occur; where is the 'speaker' and where do the events occur; why does the speaker speak? William Harmon has suggested that starting an analysis with: "This poem dramatizes the conflict between …" is a key technique.
George Herbert in his poem Jordan asks if poetry must be about the imaginary. The poem opens:
Who sayes that fictions onely and false hair
Become a verse? Is there in truth no beautie?
Is all good structure in a winding stair?
May no lines passe, except they do their dutie
Not to a true, but painted chair?
He was railing against the prevalent enthusiasm for pastoral poetry above all other forms (as becomes apparent in subsequent verses). Curiously, this verse uses metaphors to challenge the use of indirect approaches to their subject. False hair and a painted chair are decorations of the mundane. The winding stair is obstructive concealment of meaning. Herbert is criticizing the overuse of allegory, symbolism or elaborate language.
For most poets—even the plain-speaking Herbert—metaphor is the fundamental means of communicating complexity succinctly. Some metaphors become so widely used that they are widely recognized symbols and these can be identified by using a specialist dictionary.
Allegorical verse uses an extended metaphor to provide the framework for the whole work. It was particularly prevalent in seventeenth century English but a more recent example is Charles Williams' The Masque of the Manuscript, in which the process of publishing is a metaphor for the search for truth. Allegories are usually readily apparent because of the heavy use of metaphor within them.
The symbolism used in a poem may not always be as overt as metaphor. Often the poet communicates emotionally by selecting words with particular connotations. For example, the word "sheen" in The Destruction of Sennacherib has stronger connotations of polishing, of human industry, than does the similar "shine". The Assyrians did not simply choose shiny metal; they worked to make it so. The word hints at a military machine.
Other tropes that may be used to increase the level of allusion include irony, litotes, simile, and metonymy (particularly synecdoche).
6. Sound, tone, diction, and connotation
Analyzing diction and connotation — the meanings of words as well as the feelings and associations they carry — is a good place to start for any poem. The use of specific words in the poem serves to create a tone an attitude taken towards the subject. For example, consider the words "slither" and "sneak." When used in a poem, the words conjure up images of a snake. The sibilant s sound reinforces the image. The connotations of the words suggest something surreptitious and undercover. From the tone, one can infer that the author is suspicious or fearful of the subject.
A detached tone or an opposite tone than the reader would expect, are sometimes purposely employed to elicit more of a response. In the opening lines of "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", T. S. Eliot quickly sets a certain tone, and then creates effect by juxtaposing it with a very different tone:
Let us go then, you and I,
When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherized upon a table
7. Evaluating
a final approach to analyze poetry. We have looked at poem in as many ways as possible; we should always make some kind of summarizing statement about the quality of the poem.
II.2 Case Example
"The Silken Tent" by Robert Frost
In these two examples, analytic terms are not needed to appreciate the poem; they are only needed to explain or describe the poem's effect. Sometimes, though, the reader needs a certain skill in analyzing poetry in order to appreciate the poem. If a listener doesn't know what fish tanks and military tanks are, he or she will not "get the joke" about the two fish. Similarly, sometimes a poem cannot work, cannot produce its intended effect, and cannot do what it was designed to do, unless the reader brings a certain level of analytic skill to the experience of reading it. One such poem is Robert Frost's "The Silken Tent".
"The Silken Tent" by Robert Frost
She is as in a field a silken tent
At midday when a sunny summer breeze
Has dried the dew and all its ropes relent,
So that in guys it gently sways at ease,
And its supporting central cedar pole,
That is its pinnacle to heavenward
And signifies the sureness of the soul,
Seems to owe naught to any single cord,
But strictly held by none, is loosely bound
By countless silken ties of love and thought
To everything on earth the compass round,
And only by one's going slightly taut
In the capriciousness of summer air
Is of the slightest bondage made aware.
Often, a good way to begin analyzing a poem is to reword it, putting it in one's own words, or into ordinary speech, in order to get a good grasp of the poem's content. (This is called doing a prose paraphrase.) Like Shakespeare's "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day", this poem uses a sustained image to describe another person. Frost draws out an extended comparison between a woman and a silken tent in order to make some essential aspect of the woman's character real and available to the reader. The comparison is not to just any tent, but to a tent imagined in a very specific way. Ropes or cords draw up, become taut, when wet. In this case, the tent is imagined at midday. Any morning dew which would have soaked the tent's guy-lines has evaporated, and the ropes are now somewhat slack. The tent sways slightly in response to the wind. This imagery conveys — at a subconscious but very real and effective level — a sense that the woman being described is not tense or nervous, but is instead genial, relaxed, comfortable to be around. This does not mean, though, that she is wishy washy, someone who is blown about by every gust of fad and fashion. The tent's pole — its upright nature, its strength — conveys a sense of backbone, character, and firmness in the woman being described. In this woman's case, firmness of character does not lead to her becoming dogmatic or insistent. Rather, her character derives in part at least from her deep investment in friends, family, and community, from "countless silken ties of love and thought". Some people would experience numerous relationships and the obligations they entail as something entangling, binding, or limiting. This woman does not seem to. She seems to be very much at ease in this situation, so much so that she and those around her are only likely to be aware of their bounds and limits in unusual circumstances.
When one reads this poem aloud, rhythm and meter are much less evident, much less emphatically presented than in "The Destruction of Sennacherib". In fact, most people who hear the poem read aloud for the first time will say that it does not rhyme and it does not have any particular rhythm. Closer examination reveals that the poem does rhyme though. In fact, it rhymes in a specific pattern: ABAB CDCD EFEF GG (that is, the first line rhymes with the third line (the A's), the second line rhymes with the fourth line (the B's), and so forth). But, the rhymes are much less forceful, much less emphatic and noticeable, than in Byron's poem. This is in part because Byron arranged the words such that each line ending (and therefore each rhyme) corresponds a natural pause in speech. That is, the lines end at the same places where one would pause if the lines were set as prose and one were reading the words aloud. Such lines are said to be end stopped. End stopping makes rhyme more noticeable. Frost, though, arranged at least some of the lines in "The Silken Tent" such that the line endings do not coincide with natural pauses (such as the end of line 2: someone reading the words "a sunny, summer breeze / has dried the dew" would not necessarily pause after "breeze"). This technique is called enjambment. Enjambment de-emphasizes rhyming lines.
And, there is a rhythm, albeit a rather subtle or muted one. Each line has ten syllables, and (with slight and pleasant variations) they follow a pattern of weak syllables followed by strong syllables:
has DRIED the DEW and ALL its ROPES reLENT
This pattern (weak STRONG) is called an iamb. There are five iambs to the line here: these are pentameter lines (penta- is from the Greek for "five"). The poem does have a meter: it is called iambic pentameter. Frost employs the meter with a very light touch, though, and feels free to "play around with it", briefly departing from the regular pattern as appropriate.
The whole poem is a single sentence: a single, rather long, but nonetheless conversational sounding sentence that covers fourteen lines.
So, this poem, which at first seems rather formless, in fact has a very specific structure: fourteen lines of iambic pentameter rhyming ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. There is a term for this structure: it is called the Shakespearean sonnet, and it is regarded as one of the stricter, more difficult forms. Frost is not writing a shapeless poem; he is writing within very strict rules, and in fact has raised the bar by making himself do it all in one sentence. The poem is single, long, graceful sentence that unfolds — in very relaxed, natural sounding way — within the strict boundaries of the Shakespearean sonnet form.
And — going back to the prose paraphrase — it describes a woman whose life unfolds in a very relaxed, natural way, within numerous strict boundaries. In the woman's character, as in the poem's form, one is not really aware that the boundaries are even there. The woman, like the poem, exists comfortably, naturally, easily within numerous limits and boundaries.
And this is the poem's great accomplishment: the form enacts the content; the language of the poem does what the language itself says. Though this analysis proceeded by temporarily separating form and content, the result of the analysis is the realization that in "The Silken Tent", form and content are truly inseparable: they are exact complements to each other. The effect of this poem, the work it is designed to do, is to create a sharp sense of pleasure and appreciation when one recognizes how skillfully and appropriately the poet has used the words.
In this case, a certain amount of critical terminology and analytic skill is necessary in order to appreciate the poem. If the reader does not know what a sonnet is, much less more subtle aspects of form such as enjambment, he or she will have no way to see what the poem does. He or she will have no way to "get the joke". In this case, poetry enjoyment is enabled by poetry analysis.
Chapter Three
Conclution
There are some fundamental approaches to poetry such: Objective, Subjective, General, Particural, Imagery and Symbolism, tone, ditcion conotation, and the last approach is Evaluating. These approaches have different meaning based on the reader. Each of the approach describe is helpful in each own way and ultimately a complite axplication of a poem requires that we approach it in various ways.
Bibliography
Russel Reaske, Christopher. 1966. How to Analyze Poetry. Monarch Press: New York.
www.wikipediaenclycopedia.om
www.shelfmagazine.com
Tip of the Tongue
Tip of the Tongue based on Psycholinguistic field
Chapter One
Introduction
I.1 Background
Psycholinguistic is a knowledge that learns language and psychological. There are several discussed that learn in psycholinguistic. Several discussed themselves are how language acquired it is discussed about the first human get the word and understood the meaning of the word, in this case baby.
Second is how language produces, it is discussed about the first words, phrases or sentences that produced by human. The third is how language comprehended; it is discussed about how human develops and comprehends the language. And the last is how languages lose; as we know language can be lost also it is caused by some reasons.
There are several causes that influence language can be lost. These causes are slip of the tongue, tip of the tongue, Alzheimer and other causes or diseases. These cases above interest the writer to discussed one of the cause that can make language lost; there is Tip of the Tongue (TOT).
I.2 Problems
1). what is Tip of the Tongue (TOT) and what the causes?
2). how does history of TOT?
3). what interrelation between TOT and neurobiologist?
I.3 Problems Solve Method
To answer the questions above the writer use descriptive method by describe the problems and explanations.
I.4 Systematic
Foreword
Content of List
Chapter One Introduction
I.1 Background
I.2 Problems
I.3 Problems Solve Method
I.4 Systematic
Chapter Two Content
II.1 Definition TOT and Causes TOT
II.2 History TOT
II.3 TOT and Neurobiology
Chapter Three Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter Two
Content
II.1 Definition Tip of the Tongue (TOT) and Causes TOT
II.1.1 Definition
The tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon is an instance of knowing something that cannot immediately be recalled. TOT is a near-universal experience with memory recollection involving difficulty retrieving a well-known word or familiar name. When experiencing TOT, people feel that the blocked word is on the verge of being recovered. Despite failure in finding the word, people have the feeling that the blocked word is figuratively "on the tip of the tongue." Inaccessibility and the sense of imminence are two key features of an operational definition of TOTs (A.S. Brown, 1991).
- In a tip-of-the-tongue experience, you typically know quite a lot of information about the target word without being able to remember the word itself.
- Remembering often occurs sometime later, when you have stopped searching for the word.
- Often a similar sounding word seems to block your recall, but these probably don't cause your difficulty in remembering.
- TOTs probably occur because of there is a weak connection between the meaning and the sound of a word.
- Connections are weak when they haven't been used frequently or recently
- Aging may also weaken connections.
- TOTs do occur more frequently as we age.
- In general, this increase in TOTs with age is seen in poorer recall of names (proper names and names of things). Abstract words do not become harder to recall with age.
- Keeping your experience of language diverse (e.g., playing scrabble, doing crosswords) may help reduce TOTs.
II.1.2 Causes TOT
It has been thought that these interfering words cause the TOTs, but some researchers now believe they’re a consequence rather than a cause. Because you have part of the sounds of the word you’re searching for, your hard-working brain, searching for words that have those sounds, keeps coming up with the same, wrong, words.
A recent study by Dr Lori James of the University of California and Dr Deborah Burke of Pomona College suggests a different cause.
How are words held in memory? A lot of emphasis has been placed on the importance of semantic information — the meaning of words. But it may be that the sound of a word is as important as its meaning.
Words contain several types of information, including:
- Semantic information (meaning),
- Lexical information (letters), and
- Phonological information (sound).
These types of information are held in separate parts of memory. They are connected of course, so that when, for example, you read Velcro, the letter information triggers the connected sound information and the connected meaning information, telling you how to pronounce the word and what it means.
When you try to think of a word, as opposed to being given it, you generally start with the meaning (“that sticky stuff that has fuzz on one side and tiny hooks on the other”). If the connection between that meaning and the sound information is not strong enough, the sound information won’t be activated strongly enough to allow you to retrieve all of it.
Drs James and Burke think that TOTs occur because of weak connections between the meaning and the sound of a word.
Connections are strengthened when they’re used a lot. They are also stronger when they’ve just been used. If you haven’t used a connection for a while, it will weaken. It may also be that aging weakens connections.
This may explain why the errant word suddenly “pops up”. It may be that you have experienced a similar sound to the target word.
II.2 History Tip of the Tongue
The experience of TOT appeared in non-academic literature as early as 1885. Anton Chekhov's short story "A Horsey Name" is about the main character's tip-of-the-tongue experience involving a surname. In 1890, pioneering psychologist William James discussed the phenomenon in his text The Principles of Psychology. James described the TOT state as "a gap that is intensely active".
In 1966, Harvard psychologists Roger Brown and David McNeill reported the first empirical investigation of the tip-of-the-tongue state. They recounted, "He signs of it were unmistakable" and "he [a research participant] would appear to be in mild torment, something like on the brink of a sneeze, and if he found the word his relief was considerable." They also found that TOT is a fairly universal phenomenon; TOTs occur about once a week and increase as you age, and they're often caused by proper names. Further, people experiencing TOT are often able to access the first letter of the "target word" fairly accurately and they also bring up words related to the "target word." Finally, R. Brown and McNeill have some good news: target words are retrieved during the experience of a TOT phenomenon about half of the time (A.S. Brown, 1991).
Although it is not explicitly called by this name it is interesting to note that TOT is briefly considered by Aristotle in "On Memory and Reminiscence", in his discussion on recollection.
II.3 Tip of the Tongue and Neurobiologist
Neural basis of TOT
The anterior cingulate and right middle frontal cortices are two neural areas implicated in the TOT phenomenon. One study showed that, relative to successful retrieval or unsuccessful retrieval not accompanied by a TOT, retrieval failures accompanied by TOTs elicited a selective response in anterior cingulate-prefrontal cortices. The study also found that while attempting to retrieve information, subjects rely heavily on visual spatial clues in correctly retrieving the information. For example, some subjects in the study that were trying to recall a name described looking at the person's face in attempting to retrieve the name. Also, when trying to recall the name of an author, the subjects described attempting to read the name of the author from an imagined book. The authors of the study suggest that "the extent that the subjects in our fMRI study used a visual imagery strategy when in a TOT condition; the activation observed in right inferior PFC could constitute the neural correlates of these efforts to resolve this retrieval.
Human Cerebrum
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Lobes of the human cerebrum. The temporal lobe (green) and frontal lobe (blue)are thought to play an important role in speech
Three stage neural network model
Simplified view of an artificial neural network
One theory of why the tip of the tongue phenomenon occurs comes from Petro Gopych (2001), a professor at the Kharkiv National University. Gopych’s model proposes three stages in word recall process.
1. Word node selection
o This first stage involves actually selecting which word we are trying to recall. When specifying the word, we identify the learned artificial neural network (ANN) which contains information about the target word, and then activate that part.
2. Word retrieval
o According to Gopych, free recall exhibits positive and negative outputs randomly in the learned ANN. When trying to recall a specific word, otherwise known as cued recall, the retrieval process depicts a “spike” of these outputs with a fixed part of the true information (specific word). The result of attempts to retrieve the word from the learned ANN is an output of positive and negative units.
3. Comparison of patterns
o The pattern of outputs determined by the retrieval attempts is compared to a reference pattern from metamemory. If the sample pattern matches the reference pattern, the searching stops because the word that was searched for is recalled. If there is no match, the retrieval process (stage 2) starts over again and a pattern of outputs enters the ANN. This continues until the reference pattern is detected or the process is stopped independently.
Gopych believes that the problem in recalling a specified word comes from a damaged ANN. He suggests that the stored semantic information is damaged or incompletely selected. The severity of the damage determines the power of the TOT.
Gopych’s three stage neural network theory can be used to explain many aspects of TOT including semantic priming, immediate, delay, or eventually full TOT resolution, age dependence in TOTs, recollection of the first letter of the target word, and many more. Using the number of attempts of memory retrieval, the duration of time intervals between successive sets of spikes, and the duration of single neuron spikes, the retrieval chronometry can be determined. Gopych’s theory also supports Tulving’s challenge to the doctrine of concordance.
Chapter Three
Conclusion
The tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon is an instance of knowing something that cannot immediately be recalled. TOT is a near-universal experience with memory recollection involving difficulty retrieving a well-known word or familiar name. When experiencing TOT, people feel that the blocked word is on the verge of being recovered.
The experience of TOT appeared in non-academic literature as early as 1885. Anton Chekhov's short story "A Horsey Name" is about the main character's tip-of-the-tongue experience involving a surname. In 1890, pioneering psychologist William James discussed the phenomenon in his text The Principles of Psychology. James described the TOT state as "a gap that is intensely active".
Bibliography
Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono. 2005. Psikolinguistik Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Yayasan Obor Indonesia: Jakarta.
www.memory-key.com/EverydayMemory/TOT.htm
www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2000/11/001113071544.
www.wikipedia.com
Chapter One
Introduction
I.1 Background
Psycholinguistic is a knowledge that learns language and psychological. There are several discussed that learn in psycholinguistic. Several discussed themselves are how language acquired it is discussed about the first human get the word and understood the meaning of the word, in this case baby.
Second is how language produces, it is discussed about the first words, phrases or sentences that produced by human. The third is how language comprehended; it is discussed about how human develops and comprehends the language. And the last is how languages lose; as we know language can be lost also it is caused by some reasons.
There are several causes that influence language can be lost. These causes are slip of the tongue, tip of the tongue, Alzheimer and other causes or diseases. These cases above interest the writer to discussed one of the cause that can make language lost; there is Tip of the Tongue (TOT).
I.2 Problems
1). what is Tip of the Tongue (TOT) and what the causes?
2). how does history of TOT?
3). what interrelation between TOT and neurobiologist?
I.3 Problems Solve Method
To answer the questions above the writer use descriptive method by describe the problems and explanations.
I.4 Systematic
Foreword
Content of List
Chapter One Introduction
I.1 Background
I.2 Problems
I.3 Problems Solve Method
I.4 Systematic
Chapter Two Content
II.1 Definition TOT and Causes TOT
II.2 History TOT
II.3 TOT and Neurobiology
Chapter Three Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter Two
Content
II.1 Definition Tip of the Tongue (TOT) and Causes TOT
II.1.1 Definition
The tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon is an instance of knowing something that cannot immediately be recalled. TOT is a near-universal experience with memory recollection involving difficulty retrieving a well-known word or familiar name. When experiencing TOT, people feel that the blocked word is on the verge of being recovered. Despite failure in finding the word, people have the feeling that the blocked word is figuratively "on the tip of the tongue." Inaccessibility and the sense of imminence are two key features of an operational definition of TOTs (A.S. Brown, 1991).
- In a tip-of-the-tongue experience, you typically know quite a lot of information about the target word without being able to remember the word itself.
- Remembering often occurs sometime later, when you have stopped searching for the word.
- Often a similar sounding word seems to block your recall, but these probably don't cause your difficulty in remembering.
- TOTs probably occur because of there is a weak connection between the meaning and the sound of a word.
- Connections are weak when they haven't been used frequently or recently
- Aging may also weaken connections.
- TOTs do occur more frequently as we age.
- In general, this increase in TOTs with age is seen in poorer recall of names (proper names and names of things). Abstract words do not become harder to recall with age.
- Keeping your experience of language diverse (e.g., playing scrabble, doing crosswords) may help reduce TOTs.
II.1.2 Causes TOT
It has been thought that these interfering words cause the TOTs, but some researchers now believe they’re a consequence rather than a cause. Because you have part of the sounds of the word you’re searching for, your hard-working brain, searching for words that have those sounds, keeps coming up with the same, wrong, words.
A recent study by Dr Lori James of the University of California and Dr Deborah Burke of Pomona College suggests a different cause.
How are words held in memory? A lot of emphasis has been placed on the importance of semantic information — the meaning of words. But it may be that the sound of a word is as important as its meaning.
Words contain several types of information, including:
- Semantic information (meaning),
- Lexical information (letters), and
- Phonological information (sound).
These types of information are held in separate parts of memory. They are connected of course, so that when, for example, you read Velcro, the letter information triggers the connected sound information and the connected meaning information, telling you how to pronounce the word and what it means.
When you try to think of a word, as opposed to being given it, you generally start with the meaning (“that sticky stuff that has fuzz on one side and tiny hooks on the other”). If the connection between that meaning and the sound information is not strong enough, the sound information won’t be activated strongly enough to allow you to retrieve all of it.
Drs James and Burke think that TOTs occur because of weak connections between the meaning and the sound of a word.
Connections are strengthened when they’re used a lot. They are also stronger when they’ve just been used. If you haven’t used a connection for a while, it will weaken. It may also be that aging weakens connections.
This may explain why the errant word suddenly “pops up”. It may be that you have experienced a similar sound to the target word.
II.2 History Tip of the Tongue
The experience of TOT appeared in non-academic literature as early as 1885. Anton Chekhov's short story "A Horsey Name" is about the main character's tip-of-the-tongue experience involving a surname. In 1890, pioneering psychologist William James discussed the phenomenon in his text The Principles of Psychology. James described the TOT state as "a gap that is intensely active".
In 1966, Harvard psychologists Roger Brown and David McNeill reported the first empirical investigation of the tip-of-the-tongue state. They recounted, "He signs of it were unmistakable" and "he [a research participant] would appear to be in mild torment, something like on the brink of a sneeze, and if he found the word his relief was considerable." They also found that TOT is a fairly universal phenomenon; TOTs occur about once a week and increase as you age, and they're often caused by proper names. Further, people experiencing TOT are often able to access the first letter of the "target word" fairly accurately and they also bring up words related to the "target word." Finally, R. Brown and McNeill have some good news: target words are retrieved during the experience of a TOT phenomenon about half of the time (A.S. Brown, 1991).
Although it is not explicitly called by this name it is interesting to note that TOT is briefly considered by Aristotle in "On Memory and Reminiscence", in his discussion on recollection.
II.3 Tip of the Tongue and Neurobiologist
Neural basis of TOT
The anterior cingulate and right middle frontal cortices are two neural areas implicated in the TOT phenomenon. One study showed that, relative to successful retrieval or unsuccessful retrieval not accompanied by a TOT, retrieval failures accompanied by TOTs elicited a selective response in anterior cingulate-prefrontal cortices. The study also found that while attempting to retrieve information, subjects rely heavily on visual spatial clues in correctly retrieving the information. For example, some subjects in the study that were trying to recall a name described looking at the person's face in attempting to retrieve the name. Also, when trying to recall the name of an author, the subjects described attempting to read the name of the author from an imagined book. The authors of the study suggest that "the extent that the subjects in our fMRI study used a visual imagery strategy when in a TOT condition; the activation observed in right inferior PFC could constitute the neural correlates of these efforts to resolve this retrieval.
Human Cerebrum
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Lobes of the human cerebrum. The temporal lobe (green) and frontal lobe (blue)are thought to play an important role in speech
Three stage neural network model
Simplified view of an artificial neural network
One theory of why the tip of the tongue phenomenon occurs comes from Petro Gopych (2001), a professor at the Kharkiv National University. Gopych’s model proposes three stages in word recall process.
1. Word node selection
o This first stage involves actually selecting which word we are trying to recall. When specifying the word, we identify the learned artificial neural network (ANN) which contains information about the target word, and then activate that part.
2. Word retrieval
o According to Gopych, free recall exhibits positive and negative outputs randomly in the learned ANN. When trying to recall a specific word, otherwise known as cued recall, the retrieval process depicts a “spike” of these outputs with a fixed part of the true information (specific word). The result of attempts to retrieve the word from the learned ANN is an output of positive and negative units.
3. Comparison of patterns
o The pattern of outputs determined by the retrieval attempts is compared to a reference pattern from metamemory. If the sample pattern matches the reference pattern, the searching stops because the word that was searched for is recalled. If there is no match, the retrieval process (stage 2) starts over again and a pattern of outputs enters the ANN. This continues until the reference pattern is detected or the process is stopped independently.
Gopych believes that the problem in recalling a specified word comes from a damaged ANN. He suggests that the stored semantic information is damaged or incompletely selected. The severity of the damage determines the power of the TOT.
Gopych’s three stage neural network theory can be used to explain many aspects of TOT including semantic priming, immediate, delay, or eventually full TOT resolution, age dependence in TOTs, recollection of the first letter of the target word, and many more. Using the number of attempts of memory retrieval, the duration of time intervals between successive sets of spikes, and the duration of single neuron spikes, the retrieval chronometry can be determined. Gopych’s theory also supports Tulving’s challenge to the doctrine of concordance.
Chapter Three
Conclusion
The tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon is an instance of knowing something that cannot immediately be recalled. TOT is a near-universal experience with memory recollection involving difficulty retrieving a well-known word or familiar name. When experiencing TOT, people feel that the blocked word is on the verge of being recovered.
The experience of TOT appeared in non-academic literature as early as 1885. Anton Chekhov's short story "A Horsey Name" is about the main character's tip-of-the-tongue experience involving a surname. In 1890, pioneering psychologist William James discussed the phenomenon in his text The Principles of Psychology. James described the TOT state as "a gap that is intensely active".
Bibliography
Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono. 2005. Psikolinguistik Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Yayasan Obor Indonesia: Jakarta.
www.memory-key.com/EverydayMemory/TOT.htm
www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2000/11/001113071544.
www.wikipedia.com
Sabtu, 31 Januari 2009
Kepemimpinan Dalam Islam
Fitrah Manusia Adalah Menjadi Pemimipin Bukan Menjadi Perusak
Seorang manusia diciptakan untuk menjadi pemimpin seperti firman Allah dalam Q.S Al Baqarah ayat 30 yang artinya “Ingatlah ketika Tuhanmu berfirman kepada para malaikat: Sesungguhnya Aku hendak menjadikan seorang khalifah di muka bumi. Mereka berkata: Mengapa Engkau hendak menjadikan (Khalifah) di bumi itu orang yang akan membuat kerusakan padanya dan menumpahkan darah, padahal kami senantiasa bertasbih dengan memuji Engkau dan mensucikan Engkau?. Tuhan berfirman: Sesungguhnya Aku mengetahui apa yang tidak kamu ketahui”.
Dari firman Allah diatas sudah jelas bahwa manusia diciptakan untuk menjadi pemimipin. Dan jauh sebelum manusia diciptakanpun Allah telah mengetahui apa yang akan terjadi. Sifat manusia yang serakah membuat segala seuatu di bumi menjadi rusak. Bencana-bencana yang timbul pada saat ini pun merupakan kausalitas dari keserakahan manusia.
Menjadi seorang pemimpin di masa sekarang ini tidaklah mudah. Tapi mengapa banyak orang rela memperebutkan kursi kepemimpinan? Bahkan sebagian dari mereka menghalalkan segala cara untuk menjadi seorang pemimpin di suatu daerah atau negara. Black Campaign dan Money Politic pun seakan menjadi hal yang lumrah padahal hal tersebut jelas-jelas dilarang. Ironinya masyarakat lebih memilih orang yang melakukan hal negative tersebut untuk menjadi pemimpin mereka. Seperti itukah demokrasi? Ketika itu terjadi maka Negara atau daerah yang dipimpinnya pun hancur karena sang penguasa yang serakah. Akhirnya hubungan penguasa dan bawahannya (masyarakat) itu ikut hancur pula. Untuk menjaga keharmonisan harusnya penguasa bisa menjadikan rasa hormat dan kesetiaan menjadi penghubung antara penguasa dan bawahannya. Penguasa harus memperlakukan bawahan dengan baik. Bawahan harus melayani penguasa dengan setia. Penguasa harus memperlakukan bawahan dengan adil. Bawahan harus melayani penguasa dengan patuh. Penguasa tidak hanya memerintah bawahan, tapi juga menunjukkan perhatian, perlindungan dan penghargaan. Seorang penguasa harus baik terhadap bawahan dan menghormati perasaannya. Bawahan harus menganggap kesetiaan sebagai kebajikan. Penguasa yang tidak mempercayai bawahan akan berakhir sendirian. Seorang penguasa yang bekerja dengan dekat dan rajin bersama bawahan akan selalu harmonis. Ini juga berlaku bagi seluruh eselon dari sebuah perusahaan.
Seorang penguasa harus membiarkan bawahannya mengetahui tujuan dan rencananya sehingga mereka memahami kebijakan pemerintah. Pemerintah harus pertama-tama mendirikan seperangkat hukum yang jelas. Hukum harus diketahui sampai ke seluruh negeri. Bila rakyat bersatu, mereka dapat memenangkan pertempuran. Seorang pemimpin harus membuat rakyatnya mengerti dengan jelas kebijakan dan tujuan pemerintah. Hanya dengan demikian ia mendapat dukungan dan pengertian rakyatnya. Dengan hal tersebut mudah-mudahan fitrah manusia sebagai seorang pemimpin dapat terpenuhi dengan baik dan benar tanpa ada perusakan fisik maupun psikis terhadap rakyatnya.
Kita mungkin masih ingat terhadap tragedi di Maluku. Pilkada Maluku merupakan Pilkada terburuk di Indonesia karena menimbulkan ekses negative bagi rakyatnya.
Oleh karena itu mari kita berpikir dan beristiqarah untuk memilih siapa yang lebih bisa memimpin kita. Yuk...! Kita suksekan Pemilu 2009.
Oleh: Imam Sugihartono
Sabtu, 17 Januari 2009
Kepemimpinan 2
Kepemimpinan Dalam Era Globalisasi
Demokrasi merupakan sebuah sistem pemerintahan yang diadopsi di Indonesia. Salah satu produk dari adanya demokrasi di Indonesia adalah Desentralisasi (Otonomi Daerah) dengan ditandai oleh adanya UU no 22 tahun 1999. Seorang pemimpin yang demokratis cenderung group developer. Segala sesuatunya di titik beratkan pada pembangunan sektor publik. Adanya sebuah desentralisasi merupakan sebuah kesempatan dan peluang untuk membangun daerah. Tapi bagaimana desentralisasi dilakukan oleh para pemimpin daerah? desentralisasi bermaksud menyerahkan kekuasaan kepada daerah, berpindahnya pengambilan keputusan dan kekuasaan berhubungan dengan pengambilan dari pusat kepada kepada pemerintah daerah; memahami desentralisasi dalam praktek melalui identifikasi dan pertimbangan dari studi kasus internasional yang berbeda berdebat hubungan antara peningkatan pendidikan dan otonomi kelembagaan. variasi terminologi pada hakekatnya dihubungkan untuk melihat hasil dari desentralisasi itu sendiri.
Dalam terminologi berbeda digunakan untuk menguraikan proses pengambilan keputusan dari satu tingkat otoritas ke yang lain di dalam sistem seperti halnya menghasilkan kondisi-kondisi untuk organisasi individu dari dinamika ini. Beberapa penulis menggunakan satu atau istilah lain tanpa perhatian terperinci ke maksud yang tepat dengan hasil yang mereka mungkin gunakan.
Pada sistem pemerintahan yang terbaru tidak lagi banyak menerapkan sistem sentralisasi, melainkan sistem otonomi daerah atau otda yang memberikan sebagian wewenang yang tadinya harus diputuskan pada pemerintah pusat kini dapat di putuskan di tingkat pemerintah daerah atau pemda. Kelebihan sistem ini adalah sebagian besar keputusan dan kebijakan yang berada di daerah dapat diputuskan di daerah tanpa adanya campur tangan dari pemerintahan di pusat. Namun kekurangan dari sistem desentralisasi pada otonomi khusus untuk daerah adalah euforia yang berlebihan di mana wewenang tersebut hanya mementingkat kepentingan golongan dan kelompok serta digunakan untuk mengeruk keuntungan pribadi atau oknum. Hal tersebut terjadi karena sulit untuk dikontrol oleh pemerintah di tingkat pusat.
Seorang pemimpin (pemerintah) yang demokratis harus memahami betul apa yang harus dilakukan. Pengambilan keputusan tidak sepenuhnya ada di tangan pemimpin. Pelaksanaan desentralisasi dan otonomi daerah (otda) dapat mendekatkan dan memperbaiki pelayanan pemerintah kepada masyarakat. Perbaikan pelayanan itu dapat terus membaik apabila pemerintahan dijalankan secara terbuka, akuntabel, dan memberi ruang partisipasi kepada masyarakat. Kajian ini bermaksud melihat perubahan pelayanan pemerintah daerah (pemda) kepada rakyat setelah kebijakan desentralisasi dan otda dilaksanakan. Kinerja pelayanan pemda secara umum tercermin dari proses dan keputusan pengalokasian dana dalam Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Daerah (APBD).
Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa seorang pemimpin yang baik/demokratis harus terbuka, akuntabel, dan memberi ruang partisipasi kepada masyarakat.
Oleh: Imam Sugihartono
Demokrasi merupakan sebuah sistem pemerintahan yang diadopsi di Indonesia. Salah satu produk dari adanya demokrasi di Indonesia adalah Desentralisasi (Otonomi Daerah) dengan ditandai oleh adanya UU no 22 tahun 1999. Seorang pemimpin yang demokratis cenderung group developer. Segala sesuatunya di titik beratkan pada pembangunan sektor publik. Adanya sebuah desentralisasi merupakan sebuah kesempatan dan peluang untuk membangun daerah. Tapi bagaimana desentralisasi dilakukan oleh para pemimpin daerah? desentralisasi bermaksud menyerahkan kekuasaan kepada daerah, berpindahnya pengambilan keputusan dan kekuasaan berhubungan dengan pengambilan dari pusat kepada kepada pemerintah daerah; memahami desentralisasi dalam praktek melalui identifikasi dan pertimbangan dari studi kasus internasional yang berbeda berdebat hubungan antara peningkatan pendidikan dan otonomi kelembagaan. variasi terminologi pada hakekatnya dihubungkan untuk melihat hasil dari desentralisasi itu sendiri.
Dalam terminologi berbeda digunakan untuk menguraikan proses pengambilan keputusan dari satu tingkat otoritas ke yang lain di dalam sistem seperti halnya menghasilkan kondisi-kondisi untuk organisasi individu dari dinamika ini. Beberapa penulis menggunakan satu atau istilah lain tanpa perhatian terperinci ke maksud yang tepat dengan hasil yang mereka mungkin gunakan.
Pada sistem pemerintahan yang terbaru tidak lagi banyak menerapkan sistem sentralisasi, melainkan sistem otonomi daerah atau otda yang memberikan sebagian wewenang yang tadinya harus diputuskan pada pemerintah pusat kini dapat di putuskan di tingkat pemerintah daerah atau pemda. Kelebihan sistem ini adalah sebagian besar keputusan dan kebijakan yang berada di daerah dapat diputuskan di daerah tanpa adanya campur tangan dari pemerintahan di pusat. Namun kekurangan dari sistem desentralisasi pada otonomi khusus untuk daerah adalah euforia yang berlebihan di mana wewenang tersebut hanya mementingkat kepentingan golongan dan kelompok serta digunakan untuk mengeruk keuntungan pribadi atau oknum. Hal tersebut terjadi karena sulit untuk dikontrol oleh pemerintah di tingkat pusat.
Seorang pemimpin (pemerintah) yang demokratis harus memahami betul apa yang harus dilakukan. Pengambilan keputusan tidak sepenuhnya ada di tangan pemimpin. Pelaksanaan desentralisasi dan otonomi daerah (otda) dapat mendekatkan dan memperbaiki pelayanan pemerintah kepada masyarakat. Perbaikan pelayanan itu dapat terus membaik apabila pemerintahan dijalankan secara terbuka, akuntabel, dan memberi ruang partisipasi kepada masyarakat. Kajian ini bermaksud melihat perubahan pelayanan pemerintah daerah (pemda) kepada rakyat setelah kebijakan desentralisasi dan otda dilaksanakan. Kinerja pelayanan pemda secara umum tercermin dari proses dan keputusan pengalokasian dana dalam Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Daerah (APBD).
Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa seorang pemimpin yang baik/demokratis harus terbuka, akuntabel, dan memberi ruang partisipasi kepada masyarakat.
Oleh: Imam Sugihartono
Kepemimpinan
Kepemimpinan Dalam Era Globalisasi
Globalisasi merupakan suatu perwujudan dari modernisasi. Globalisasi ini sendiri membawa dampak negatif bagi kehidupan sosial, dampak-dampak negatif tersebut adalah Kaget Budaya (Culture Shock) dan Ketimpangan Budaya (Culture Lag). Mempersoalkan tanggung jawab moral di balik sebuah kebijakan publik maupun politik, bisa menjadi diskusi yang tidak berkesudahan. Manusia terlahir dalam sebuah problematik yang tiada hentinya, yang bagaimana mengompromikan antara sektor publik dan sektor privat. Waktu terus bergulir, perbuatan budaya dengan kebudayaan lain tak dapat dihindarkan. Tetapi dalam pertemuan dengan kebudayaan lain tokoh dapat memperkaya horizon kehidupan. Dunia pun berubah menjadi sebuah global village. Salah satu tokoh yang dapat memperkaya horizon kehidupan adalah pemimpin.
Dimensi pemerintahan dapat menajdi sebuah indikator yang diwarnai oleh keberagaman kutur. Hal lain yang dapat menjadi indikator adalah gaya kepemimpinan seorang pemimpin itu sendiri. Gaya-gaya kepemimipnan sungguh sangat beragam; gaya kharismatis, gaya paternalistis dan maternalistis, gaya militeristis, gaya otokrasi/otoritatif (authorilative, dominator), gaya laisser faire, gaya populistis, gaya administratif dan gaya demokratis (group developer).
Untuk membangun sebuah organisasi atau negara seorang pemimpin harus mampu melakukan manajemen dengan baik. Dalam memerintah negara, pemerintah sama seperti Bintang Utara, memimpin jalan. Karena itu, kepemimpinan yang kuat dan stabil serta rencana yang matang merupakan dasar bagi pertumbuhan suatu negara atau organisasi. Setiap negara yang kuat dan makmur selalu memiliki penguasa yang bijak. Seperti Bintang Utara, posisinya harus tetap benar untuk memberikan arah. Ia yang tak tentu arah, bodoh, dan pengecut, akan gagal dalam apa pun yang dilakukannya. Sebenarnya, kepemimpinan yang baik dan mantap tak dapat dipisahkan dalam suatu organisasi bisnis. Pemimpin harus sanggup menangkap kesempatan yang muncul dan menyelesaikannya.
Jadikan rasa hormat dan kesetiaan penghubung antara penguasa dan bawahannya. Penguasa harus memperlakukan bawahan dengan baik. Bawahan harus melayani penguasa dengan setia. Penguasa harus memperlakukan bawahan dengan adil. Bawahan harus melayani penguasa dengan patuh. Penguasa tidak hanya memerintah bawahan, tapi juga menunjukkan perhatian, perlindungan dan penghargaan. Seorang penguasa harus baik terhadap bawahan dan menghormati perasaannya. Bawahan harus menganggap kesetiaan sebagai kebajikan. Penguasa yang tidak mempercayai bawahan akan berakhir sendirian. Seorang penguasa yang bekerja dengan dekat dan rajin bersama bawahan akan selalu harmonis. Ini juga berlaku bagi seluruh eselon dari sebuah perusahaan.
Menjadi pemimpin yang menguasai situasi dengan baik. Seorang penguasa harus membuka lebar mata dan telinga agar dapat menguasai situasi negara dengan baik. Memahami masalah sepenuhnya dan membuat batasan antara yang benar dan yang salah. Pejabat yang setia dan yang jahat berbeda tapi sulit mengatakannya dari penampilan saja. Orang akan salah jika hanya mendasarkan pada perkataan dan sikap luar saja. Seorang penguasa harus berhati-hati saat memutuskan apakah benar atau salah.
Seorang penguasa harus membiarkan bawahannya mengetahui tujuan dan rencananya. sehingga mereka memahami kebijakan pemerintah. Pemerintah harus pertama-tama mendirikan seperangkat hukum yang jelas. Hukum harus diketahui sampai ke seluruh negeri. Bila rakyat bersatu, mereka dapat memenangkan pertempuran. Seorang pemimpin harus membuat rakyatnya mengerti dengan jelas kebijakan dan tujuan pemerintah. Hanya dengan demikian ia mendapat dukungan dan pengertian rakyatnya.
Promosikan yang berjasa dan pecat yang kurang mampu. Jika seorang penguasa ingin istananya bersih dari korupsi dan negaranya kuat dan makmur, penting untuk mengevaluasi kinerja bawahannya. Kriteria apa yang dipakai dalam menaikkan pangkat atau memecat pejabat? Kriterianya adalah apakah mereka dapat memberikan kontribusi bagi keberhasilan organisasi. Sangat berbahaya jika dipengaruhi oleh perasaan dan kesukaan pribadi.
Seorang penguasa harus menempatkan orang yang berbakat sehingga mereka dapat melakukan yang terbaik demi negaranya, tidak perduli status ekonomi dll. Orang yang berbeda memiliki pengalaman dan kemampuan yang berbeda pula. Pemimpin yang pintar harus mempergunakan sepenuhnya bakat berbagai orang tersebut untuk mengatasi kesulitan.
Globalisasi merupakan suatu perwujudan dari modernisasi. Globalisasi ini sendiri membawa dampak negatif bagi kehidupan sosial, dampak-dampak negatif tersebut adalah Kaget Budaya (Culture Shock) dan Ketimpangan Budaya (Culture Lag). Mempersoalkan tanggung jawab moral di balik sebuah kebijakan publik maupun politik, bisa menjadi diskusi yang tidak berkesudahan. Manusia terlahir dalam sebuah problematik yang tiada hentinya, yang bagaimana mengompromikan antara sektor publik dan sektor privat. Waktu terus bergulir, perbuatan budaya dengan kebudayaan lain tak dapat dihindarkan. Tetapi dalam pertemuan dengan kebudayaan lain tokoh dapat memperkaya horizon kehidupan. Dunia pun berubah menjadi sebuah global village. Salah satu tokoh yang dapat memperkaya horizon kehidupan adalah pemimpin.
Dimensi pemerintahan dapat menajdi sebuah indikator yang diwarnai oleh keberagaman kutur. Hal lain yang dapat menjadi indikator adalah gaya kepemimpinan seorang pemimpin itu sendiri. Gaya-gaya kepemimipnan sungguh sangat beragam; gaya kharismatis, gaya paternalistis dan maternalistis, gaya militeristis, gaya otokrasi/otoritatif (authorilative, dominator), gaya laisser faire, gaya populistis, gaya administratif dan gaya demokratis (group developer).
Untuk membangun sebuah organisasi atau negara seorang pemimpin harus mampu melakukan manajemen dengan baik. Dalam memerintah negara, pemerintah sama seperti Bintang Utara, memimpin jalan. Karena itu, kepemimpinan yang kuat dan stabil serta rencana yang matang merupakan dasar bagi pertumbuhan suatu negara atau organisasi. Setiap negara yang kuat dan makmur selalu memiliki penguasa yang bijak. Seperti Bintang Utara, posisinya harus tetap benar untuk memberikan arah. Ia yang tak tentu arah, bodoh, dan pengecut, akan gagal dalam apa pun yang dilakukannya. Sebenarnya, kepemimpinan yang baik dan mantap tak dapat dipisahkan dalam suatu organisasi bisnis. Pemimpin harus sanggup menangkap kesempatan yang muncul dan menyelesaikannya.
Jadikan rasa hormat dan kesetiaan penghubung antara penguasa dan bawahannya. Penguasa harus memperlakukan bawahan dengan baik. Bawahan harus melayani penguasa dengan setia. Penguasa harus memperlakukan bawahan dengan adil. Bawahan harus melayani penguasa dengan patuh. Penguasa tidak hanya memerintah bawahan, tapi juga menunjukkan perhatian, perlindungan dan penghargaan. Seorang penguasa harus baik terhadap bawahan dan menghormati perasaannya. Bawahan harus menganggap kesetiaan sebagai kebajikan. Penguasa yang tidak mempercayai bawahan akan berakhir sendirian. Seorang penguasa yang bekerja dengan dekat dan rajin bersama bawahan akan selalu harmonis. Ini juga berlaku bagi seluruh eselon dari sebuah perusahaan.
Menjadi pemimpin yang menguasai situasi dengan baik. Seorang penguasa harus membuka lebar mata dan telinga agar dapat menguasai situasi negara dengan baik. Memahami masalah sepenuhnya dan membuat batasan antara yang benar dan yang salah. Pejabat yang setia dan yang jahat berbeda tapi sulit mengatakannya dari penampilan saja. Orang akan salah jika hanya mendasarkan pada perkataan dan sikap luar saja. Seorang penguasa harus berhati-hati saat memutuskan apakah benar atau salah.
Seorang penguasa harus membiarkan bawahannya mengetahui tujuan dan rencananya. sehingga mereka memahami kebijakan pemerintah. Pemerintah harus pertama-tama mendirikan seperangkat hukum yang jelas. Hukum harus diketahui sampai ke seluruh negeri. Bila rakyat bersatu, mereka dapat memenangkan pertempuran. Seorang pemimpin harus membuat rakyatnya mengerti dengan jelas kebijakan dan tujuan pemerintah. Hanya dengan demikian ia mendapat dukungan dan pengertian rakyatnya.
Promosikan yang berjasa dan pecat yang kurang mampu. Jika seorang penguasa ingin istananya bersih dari korupsi dan negaranya kuat dan makmur, penting untuk mengevaluasi kinerja bawahannya. Kriteria apa yang dipakai dalam menaikkan pangkat atau memecat pejabat? Kriterianya adalah apakah mereka dapat memberikan kontribusi bagi keberhasilan organisasi. Sangat berbahaya jika dipengaruhi oleh perasaan dan kesukaan pribadi.
Seorang penguasa harus menempatkan orang yang berbakat sehingga mereka dapat melakukan yang terbaik demi negaranya, tidak perduli status ekonomi dll. Orang yang berbeda memiliki pengalaman dan kemampuan yang berbeda pula. Pemimpin yang pintar harus mempergunakan sepenuhnya bakat berbagai orang tersebut untuk mengatasi kesulitan.
Jumat, 16 Januari 2009
Tayub Sebagai Seni Karuhun Sumedang
1 Sejarah Tayub
Mengenai sejarah asal-usul seni Tayub sampai sekarang masih diwarnai beberapa pendapat. Tetapi sejarah perkembangan Tayub kebupaten Sumedang menarik kesimpulan sementara bahwa Tayub berasal dari Talaga. Hidup kira-kira abad ke-9 dikembangkan oleh raja Galuh Talaga. Penagru kekuasaan dapt mendorong terhadap perkembangan kesenian tradisional, selain itu hubungan kerjasama sesama kerajaan merupakan bagian dari pengaruh kesenian tersebut.
Kemudian dibawa oleh para senimanTalaga ke daerah timur Sumedang, yang mana pada abad 9 kira-kira tahun 900 M telah berdiri kerajaan Sumedang Larang dengan menobatkan Prabu Tajimalela sebagai Nalendra Prabu. Pada saat itula seni Tayub berkambang di lingkungan istana. Fungsinya sebagai media penyambutan terhadap tanu kebesaran, selain sebagai media hiburan di kalangan keluarga dan kerabat istana.
Menurut cerita rakyat Darmaraja dan Limbangan, Prabu Tajimalela turut pula mengembangkan kesenian tersebut bermunculan seni Tayub di daerah Limbangan dan Malangbong, pada masa itu wilaya tersebut berada dalam kekuasaaan Sumedang Larang. Dalam perkembangan selanjutnya seni tayub tumbuh dan berkembang di tengah-tengah masyarakat, atau tidak hanya dikenal di kalangan para pejabat kerajaan, tetapi mulai mengakar dalam nurani rakyat.
Seni tayub ini menonjol di daerah Darmaraja, Cadasngampar/Jatinunggal, Wado dan Pagerucukan (Situraja), bahkan sampai sekarang telah menjadi seni unggulan daerah-daerah setempat.
Perkembangan seni Tayub menonjol pada masa Kabupatian, pada umumnya para Bupati yang memegan pemerintahan Sumedang sangat menggemari kesenian tersebut, bahkan danya sentuhan kreasi dari para Dalem menciptakan khas ibingan (tarian) disebut Tari Tayub.
2 Jenis Waditra
Waditra yang digunakan dalam pertunjukan tayub tidak jauh bebeda dengan peralatan gamelan yang digunakan dalam sajian kiliningan, akan tetapi kadang kala di tambah oleh waditra bedug kecil atau tambur. Peran gamelan sangat dominan sebagai pengiring lagu dan tarian rakyat.
Pada umumnya gamelan Tayub dibuat dari perunggu, ada juga yang menggunakan bahan besi dan plat baja, hal itu disesuaikan dengan tingkat penggarapnya.
3 Jenis Lagu
Ditinjau dari perspektif kronologis perkembangan lagu-lagu yang digunakan dalam pertunjukan Tayub teridiri dari lagu-lagu klasik dan lagu-lagu wanda anyar, artinya jenis lagu yang telah mendapat sentuhan dari unsur seni lain. Lagu-lagu klasik diantaranya :
- Kembang Gadung
- Kulu-kulu bem
- Kulu-kulu gancang
- Gendu
- Tablo
- Badaya
Lagu-lagu wanda anyar turut mendorong terhadap perkembangan dan khasanah lagu-lagu Tayub, dan merupakan konsekuensi penggarap dalam memenuhi selera penonton atau peminat. Lagu-lagu wanda anyar diantaranya :
- Nikmat Duriat
- Lalaki Raheut Hatena
- Bulan Sapasi
- Dua Saati
- Potret Manehna
- Awet Rajet
- dsb
4 Bentuk/Teknik Penyajian
Pertunjukan sei Tayub yang tumbuh dan berkembang di kawasan timur Sumedang ; Darmaraja, Situraja, Jatinunggal dan Wado pada umumnya digelar diatas panggung, baik di halaman rumah maupun di tempat terbuka seperti halaman bale desa atau lapang. Pelaksanaannya di tentukan oleh keinginan yang menggunakannya, seperti upacara ngarot atau ngaruat lembur, syukuran, khitanan, pernikahan, hari-hari bersejarah dan syukuran lainnya. Dalam seni Tayub mengenal juru baksa umumnya pria, fungsinya sebagai pemimpin yang mengatur jalannya pertunjukan sekaligus mengatur para penari pria. Juru tari (ronggeng) berperan sebagai patner penari pria yang jumlahnya dua orang atau lebih. Selain itu juru tari berfungsi sebagai patner juru baksa ketika menarikan gaya soderan, maksudnya menghantarkan untuk menentukan giliran penari. Penonton yang ada di arena hiburan kemudian di beri soder tandanya harus menari, kalau tidak bisa menari dapat di wakilkan kepada juru tari atau kepada orang lain.
Biasanya orang pertama yang mendapat soder adalah yang punya hajat dan merupakan suatu penghargaan tertentu. Kemudian kepada tokoh-tokoh pemerintah, setelah itu giliran tokoh-tokoh masyarakat, kemudian dilanjutkan soder untuk umum. Hal tersebut merupakan aturan yang telah dibakukan, tujuannya untuk menciptakan ketertiban dalam pertunjukan.
Seni Tayub tak lepas dari pengaruh bayang-bayang pengaruh unsur seni lain, terutama seni yang didukung oleh teknologi seperti alat-alat elektrik. Pengaruh musik barat mendorong terhadap inovasi dengan memadukan unsur seni tayub dengan musik barat, demikian juga tarian mendapat sentuhan dari perkembangan seni tari wanda anyar, lahirlah istilah jaipongan
Dan pongdut yaitu akronim dari jaipong dan dangdut.
Oleh: Imam Sugihartono
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)
